This was a very challenging period for the Popes, who not only had to protect themselves but also had to face emperors who wanted to intervene directly in matters of faith, even if it meant controlling the entire Papacy. The Popes, of course, turned the other cheek and managed to handle the situation... it seems.
64. Gregory the Great [590-604]
Like Leo the Great, this is another gigaChad of the Church. He is considered one of the four Fathers of the Church, along with St. Augustine, St. Ambrose, and Jerome of Stridon. Doctor of the Church. He was nicknamed "Consul of God" and was the first monk to become Pope. He served as apocrisiarius of Pope Pelagius in Constantinople, where he developed relations with both Emperor Maurice and his family, as well as the Eastern Church. Continuing the work of evangelization, he sent Augustine of Canterbury north, into Anglo-Saxon territory, establishing the Archbishopric of Canterbury. When consulted about Augustine’s actions with the pagans, the Pope told him, do not destroy them, but cleanse them, indicating that the sanctuaries should be dedicated to God.
He achieved religious unity in Italy when the Arian Lombards converted. After King Reccared of the Visigoths also converted, he faced less pressure and reopened relations between the Visigothic Church and the Church of Rome through Isidore of Seville. This Pope ordered the compilation of the Regula Pastoralis, a manual for bishops, which laid the foundation for what would later become Gregorian Chants. He wrote many works, and theologically speaking, he dedicated significant time to the doctrine of purgatory1 and had clashes with the Patriarch of Constantinople, who declared himself Ecumenical Universal Patriarch, thus claiming supreme authority over the Church. Gregory responded by saying the Pope is the servant of the servants of God, reasserting Rome as the supreme ecclesiastical moral authority. He observed as the Patriarchs drifted further from Rome.
65. Sabinian [604-606]
Before becoming Pope, he served as the apocrisiarius of the previous Pope in Constantinople and was later assigned the mission to evangelize, unsuccessfully, in Gaul. The role was too much for him, and he was quite the opposite of his predecessor. He sold grain from the ecclesiastical stores using usury. At the time of his death, his body had to be transported through impassable streets to avoid being lynched.
66. Boniface III [607]
Apocrisiarius of Gregory [64], he reigned for only nine months. He convened a synod, but it did not yield good results. His most important contribution was prohibiting any discussion about papal succession under penalty of excommunication.
67. Boniface IV [608-615]
A deacon under Gregory [64], he converted the Roman Pantheon into the Church of Saint Mary of the Martyrs. He faced Byzantium over control of political interests. Columbanus, abbot of Bobbio, requested the Pope to serve as an instrument of unity.
68. Adeodatus I [615-618]
He promoted monastic life, following the example of Gregory the Great [64]; this Pope began issuing documents known as bulls.
69. Boniface V [619-625]
He focused on reorganizing the Church, though he could not complete his work, but he did establish Roman rites. During this time, Emperor Heraclius forbade Popes from being confirmed without imperial authorization, which had to be done by the Exarch of Ravenna, where the imperial representative resided.
70. Honorius I [625-638]
From a noble family, this Pope dedicated himself to combating monothelitism2, written by Heraclius himself in his work Ecthesis. The patriarchs in Constantinople viewed this doctrine as a theological compromise, but Rome rejected it in a very mild way, which would prove problematic for future Popes. Abbot Bertulf of Bobbio requested autonomy for monasteries from the Pope, as bishops wanted control over the monasteries, which was technically correct but created terrible coordination. A small detail: the prophet Muhammad died in 632.
71. Severinus [640]
There was a one year and seven months’ vacancy without a Pope because Emperor Heraclius refused to confirm the new Pope until he accepted Ecthesis. The Church’s response was to freeze funds intended to pay Isaac's troops, the Exarch of Ravenna, who, in retaliation, invaded Rome and looted Church treasures. He reigned for less than 100 days and refused to endorse the Emperor's work.
72. John IV [640-642]
Following tradition, he also rejected Ecthesis. He used Church resources to free slaves in his region, Dalmatia.
73. Theodore [642-649]
Appointed Cardinal by his predecessor, he faced pressure to confirm Ecthesis but rejected it, even though the Exarch of Ravenna had been responsible for his appointment. This cost him a conflict with Theodore, who ordered the looting of Roman altars.
74. Martin I [649-655]
Consecrated without imperial approval, Constantinople's Emperor Constans II regarded him as an usurper and ordered the Exarch of Ravenna to arrest the “usurper.” He convened the Lateran Synod, condemning monothelitism, Ecthesis, and Typos, works of Constans II. This was a significant blow to the Emperor's cesaropapist intentions. The Exarch had him arrested, and in Constantinople, he was tried as an enemy of the State and tortured to death.
75. Eugene [655-657]
While Martin I was imprisoned, the Emperor appointed a new Pope to accept the works and undo the synod. This Pope not only did not accept the works and confirmed the heresies but also stood up to the Emperor.
76. Vitalian [657-672]
He attempted to rebuild relations with Byzantium, though unsuccessfully, as monothelitism was at its height. In 663, he received Constans II, who sacked Rome for 12 days. He was the first emperor to return to Rome in two centuries. The Anglo-Saxon Church was divided between Saxon evangelizers and Roman missionaries. At the Synod of Whitby (664), it was agreed to use Roman rites for Masses thanks to the intervention of King Oswiu of Northumbria.
77. Adeodatus II [672-676]
A monk before becoming Pope, he was the first to use Salutem et apostolicam benedictionem in his documents. He tried to reconcile with the Emperor but rejected letters from Patriarch Constantine. To protect himself and avoid further looting, he increased the pay of Roman nobles.
78. Donus [676-678]
To resolve monothelitism, the Pope and Emperor Constantine IV held a conference to settle ideas. He encouraged bishops in Germany and Cambridge to establish schools in their dioceses. He also began improving relations with the Emperor, foreseeing the emergence of Arabs who seized the Churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria.
Subsequent Popes would eventually settle the monothelite controversy in the face of a new enemy: the followers of the prophet Muhammad. This will be in a future chapter.
Footnotes
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The concept of purgatory was unknown until the 7th century; until the appearance of Dialogues by Pope Gregory, it was believed that the deceased resided in the shadows and remained in a temporary transition until the final judgment. Only martyrs and saints were exempt from this place. Gregory developed the foundations of what we now know as purgatory, a place where you face your first judgment and remain to atone for your sins in order to purify yourself to be in the presence of the Holy Spirit. ↩
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Monothelitism is a doctrine developed by Sergius of Constantinople that affirms Christ has two natures, human and divine, through a single will. It was an attempt to unite Trinitarian and Monophysite Christians, but it struggled to convey that idea since Monophysites did not fully accept Christ's human aspect. It was condemned as heresy at the Council of Constantinople (680-681). ↩